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Overview:
Knowles' theory of andragogy is an attempt to develop a theory specifically for adult learning. Knowles emphasizes that adults are self-directed and expect to take responsibility for decisions. Adult learning programs must accommodate this fundamental aspect.
Andragogy makes the following assumptions about the design of learning: (1) Adults need to know why they need to learn something (2) Adults need to learn experientially, (3) Adults approach learning as problem-solving, and (4) Adults learn best when the topic is of immediate value.
In practical terms, andragogy means that instruction for adults needs to focus more on the process and less on the content being taught. Strategies such as case studies, role playing, simulations, and self-evaluation are most useful. Instructors adopt a role of facilitator or resource rather than lecturer or grader.
Scope/Application:
Andragogy applies to any form of adult learning and has been used extensively in the design of organizational training programs (especially for "soft skill" domains such as management development).
Example:
Knowles (1984, Appendix D) provides an example of applying andragogy principles to the design of personal computer training:
1. There is a need to explain why specific things are being taught (e.g., certain commands, functions, operations, etc.)
2. Instruction should be task-oriented instead of memorization -- learning activities should be in the context of common tasks to be performed.
3. Instruction should take into account the wide range of different backgrounds of learners; learning materials and activities should allow for different levels/types of previous experience with computers.
4. Since adults are self-directed, instruction should allow learners to discover things for themselves, providing guidance and help when mistakes are made.
(See computers for further discussion of this topic).
Principles:
1. Adults need to be involved in the planning and evaluation of their instruction.
2. Experience (including mistakes) provides the basis for learning activities.
3. Adults are most interested in learning subjects that have immediate relevance to their job or personal life.
4. Adult learning is problem-centered rather than content-oriented.
References:
Overview:
This theory stipulates that there are several different types or levels of learning. The significance of these classifications is that each different type requires different types of instruction. Gagne identifies five major categories of learning: verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, motor skills and attitudes. Different internal and external conditions are necessary for each type of learning. For example, for cognitive strategies to be learned, there must be a chance to practice developing new solutions to problems; to learn attitudes, the learner must be exposed to a credible role model or persuasive arguments.
Gagne suggests that learning tasks for intellectual skills can be organized in a hierarchy according to complexity: stimulus recognition, response generation, procedure following, use of terminology, discriminations, concept formation, rule application, and problem solving. The primary significance of the hierarchy is to identify prerequisites that should be completed to facilitate learning at each level. Prerequisites are identified by doing a task analysis of a learning/training task. Learning hierarchies provide a basis for the sequencing of instruction.
In addition, the theory outlines nine instructional events and corresponding cognitive processes:
(1) gaining attention (reception)
(2) informing learners of the objective (expectancy)
(3) stimulating recall of prior learning (retrieval)
(4) presenting the stimulus (selective perception)
(5) providing learning guidance (semantic encoding)
(6) eliciting performance (responding)
(7) providing feedback (reinforcement)
(8) assessing performance (retrieval)
(9) enhancing retention and transfer (generalization).
These events should satisfy or provide the necessary conditions for learning and serve as the basis for designing instruction and selecting appropriate media (Gagne, Briggs & Wager, 1992).
Scope/Application:
While Gagne's theoretical framework covers all aspects of learning, the focus of the theory is on intellectual skills. The theory has been applied to the design of instruction in all domains (Gagner & Driscoll, 1988). In its original formulation (Gagne, 1 962), special attention was given to military training settings. Gagne (1987) addresses the role of instructional technology in learning.
Example:
The following example illustrates a teaching sequence corresponding to the nine instructional events for the objective, Recognize an equilateral triangle:
1. Gain attention - show variety of computer generated triangles
2. Identify objective - pose question: "What is an equilateral
triangle?"
3. Recall prior learning - review definitions of triangles
4. Present stimulus - give definition of equilateral triangle
5. Guide learning- show example of how to create equilateral
6. Elicit per formance - ask students to create 5
different examples
7. Provide feedback - check all examples as correct/incorrect
8. Assess performance- provide scores and remediation
9. Enhance retention/transfer - show pictures of objects and ask students to
identify equilaterals
Gagne (1985, chapter 12) provides examples of events for each category of learning outcomes.
Principles:
1. Different instruction is required for different learning outcomes.
2. Events of learning operate on the learner in ways that constitute the conditions of learning.
3. The specific operations that constitute instructional events are different for each different type of learning outcome.
4. Learning hierarchies define what intellectual skills are to be learned and a sequence of instruction.
Overview:
The learning theory of Thorndike represents the original S-R framework of behavioral psychology: Learning is the result of associations forming between stimuli and responses. Such associations or "habits" become strengthened or weakened by the nature and frequency of the S-R pairings. The paradigm for S-R theory was trial and error learning in which certain responses come to dominate others due to rewards. The hallmark of connectionism (like all behavioral theory) was that learning could be adequately explained without refering to any unobservable internal states.
Thorndike's theory consists of three primary laws: (1) law of effect - responses to a situation which are followed by a rewarding state of affairs will be strengthened and become habitual responses to that situation, (2) law of readiness - a series of responses can be chained together to satisfy some goal which will result in annoyance if blocked, and (3) law of exercise - connections become strengthened with practice and weakened when practice is discontinued. A corollary of the law of effect was that responses that reduce the likelihood of achieving a rewarding state (i.e., punishments, failures) will decrease in strength.
The theory suggests that transfer of learning depends upon the presence of identical elements in the original and new learning situations; i.e., transfer is always specific, never general. In later versions of the theory, the concept of "belongingness" was introduced; connections are more readily established if the person perceives that stimuli or responses go together (c.f. Gestalt principles). Another concept introduced was "polarity" which specifies that connections occur more easily in the direction in which they were originally formed than the opposite. Thorndike also introduced the "spread of effect" idea, i.e., rewards affect not only the connection that produced them but temporally adjacent connections as well.
Scope/Application:
Connectionism was meant to be a general theory of learning for animals and humans. Thorndike was especially interested in the application of his theory to education including mathematics (Thorndike, 1922), spelling and reading (Thorndike, 1921), measurement of intelligence (Thorndike et al., 1927) and adult learning (Thorndike at al., 1928).
Example:
The classic example of Thorndike's S-R theory was a cat learning to escape from a "puzzle box" by pressing a lever inside the box. After much trial and error behavior, the cat learns to associate pressing the lever (S) with opening the door (R). This S-R connection is established because it results in a satisfying state of affairs (escape from the box). The law of exercise specifies that the connection was established because the S-R pairing occurred many times (the law of effect) and was rewarded (law of effect) as well as forming a single sequence (law of readiness).
Principles:
1. Learning requires both practice and rewards (laws of effect /exercise)
2. A series of S-R connections can be chained together if they belong to the same action sequence (law of readiness).
3. Transfer of learning occurs because of previously encountered situations.
4. Intelligence is a function of the number of connections learned.
Overview:
Over a period of six decades, Jean Piaget conducted a program of naturalistic research that has profoundly affected our understanding of child development. Piaget called his general theoretical framework "genetic epistemology" because he was primarily interested in how knowledge developed in human organisms. Piaget had a background in both Biology and Philosophy and concepts from both these disciplines influences his theories and research of child development.
The concept of cognitive structure is central to his theory. Cognitive structures are patterns of physical or mental action that underlie specific acts of intelligence and correspond to stages of child development (see Schemas). There are four primary cognitive structures (i.e., development stages) according to Piaget: sensorimotor, preoperations, concrete operations, and formal operations. In the sensorimotor stage (0-2 years), intelligence takes the form of motor actions. Intelligence in the preoperation period (3-7 years) is intutive in nature. The cognitive structure during the concrete operational stage (8-11 years) is logical but depends upon concrete referents. In the final stage of formal operations (12-15 years), thinking involves abstractions.
Cognitive structures change through the processes of adaptation: assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation involves the interpretation of events in terms of existing cognitive structure whereas accommodation refers to changing the cognitive structure to make sense of the environment. Cognitive development consists of a constant effort to adapt to the environment in terms of assimilation and accommodation. In this sense, Piaget's theory is similar in nature to other constructivist perspectives of learning (e.g., Bruner, Vygotsky).
While the stages of cognitive development identified by Piaget are associated with characteristic age spans, they vary for every individual. Furthermore, each stage has many detailed structural forms. For example, the concrete operational period has more than forty distinct structures covering classification and relations, spatial relationships, time, movement, chance, number, conservation and measurement. Similar detailed analysis of intellectual functions is provided by theories of intelligence such as Guilford, Gardner, and Sternberg.
Scope/Application:
Piaget explored the implications of his theory to all aspects of cognition,
intelligence and moral development. Many of Piaget's experiments were focused
on the development of mathematical and logical concepts. The theory has been
applied extensively to teaching practice and curriculum design in elementary
education (e.g., Bybee & Sund,
1982;
Example:
Applying Piaget's theory results in specific recommendations for a given stage of cognitive development. For example, with children in the sensorimotor stage, teachers should try to provide a rich and stimulating environment with ample objects to play with. On the other hand, with children in the concrete operational stage, learning activities should involve problems of classification, ordering, location, conservation using concrete objects.
Principles:
1. Children will provide different explanations of reality at different stages of cognitive development.
2. Cognitive development is facilitated by providing activities or situations that engage learners and require adaptation (i.e., assimilation and accomodation).
3. Learning materials and activities should involve the appropriate level of motor or mental operations for a child of given age; avoid asking students to perform tasks that are beyond their currrent cognitive capabilities.
4. Use teaching methods that actively involve students and present challenges.
Overview:
The theory of B.F. Skinner is based upon the idea that learning is a function of change in overt behavior. Changes in behavior are the result of an individual's response to events (stimuli) that occur in the environment. A response produces a consequence such as defining a word, hitting a ball, or solving a math problem. When a particular Stimulus-Response (S-R) pattern is reinforced (rewarded), the individual is conditioned to respond. The distinctive characteristic of operant conditioning relative to previous forms of behaviorism (e.g., Thorndike, Hull) is that the organism can emit responses instead of only eliciting response due to an external stimulus.
Reinforcement is the key element in Skinner's S-R theory. A reinforcer is anything that strengthens the desired response. It could be verbal praise, a good grade or a feeling of increased accomplishment or satisfaction. The theory also covers negative reinforcers -- any stimulus that results in the increased frequency of a response when it is withdrawn (different from adversive stimuli -- punishment -- which result in reduced responses). A great deal of attention was given to schedules of reinforcement (e.g. interval versus ratio) and their effects on establishing and maintaining behavior.
One of the distinctive aspects of Skinner's theory is that it attempted to provide behavioral explanations for a broad range of cognitive phenomena. For example, Skinner explained drive (motivation) in terms of deprivation and reinforcement schedules. Skinner (1957) tried to account for verbal learning and language within the operant conditioning paradigm, although this effort was strongly rejected by linguists and psycholinguists. Skinner (1971) deals with the issue of free will and social control.
Scope/Application:
Operant conditioning has been widely applied in clinical settings (i.e., behavior modification) as well as teaching (i.e., classroom management) and instructional development (e.g., programmed instruction). Parenthetically, it should be noted that Skinner rejected the idea of theories of learning (see Skinner, 1950).
Example:
By way of example, consider the implications of reinforcement theory as applied to the development of programmed instruction (Markle, 1969; Skinner, 1968)
1. Practice should take the form of question (stimulus) - answer (response) frames which expose the student to the subject in gradual steps
2. Require that the learner make a response for every frame and receive immediate feedback
3. Try to arrange the difficulty of the questions so the response is always correct and hence a positive reinforcement
4. Ensure that good performance in the lesson is paired with secondary reinforcers such as verbal praise, prizes and good grades.
Principles:
1. Behavior that is positively reinforced will reoccur; intermittent reinforcement is particularly effective
2. Information should be presented in small amounts so that responses can be reinforced ("shaping")
3. Reinforcements will generalize across similar stimuli ("stimulus generalization") producing secondary conditioning
Overview:
The major theme of Vygotsky's theoretical framework is that social interaction plays a fundamental role in the development of cognition. Vygotsky (1978) states: "Every function in the child's cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological). This applies equally to voluntary attention, to logical memory, and to the formation of concepts. All the higher functions originate as actual relationships between individuals." (p57).
A second aspect of Vygotsky's theory is the idea that the potential for cognitive development depends upon the "zone of proximal development" (ZPD): a level of development attained when children engage in social behavior. Full development of the ZPD depends upon full social interaction. The range of skill that can be developed with adult guidance or peer collaboration exceeds what can be attained alone.
Vygotsky's theory was an attempt to explain consciousness as the end product of socialization. For example, in the learning of language, our first utterances with peers or adults are for the purpose of communication but once mastered they become internalized and allow "inner speech".
Vygotsky's theory is complementary to the work of Bandura on social learning and a key component of situated learning theory. Because Vygotsky's focus was on cognitive development, it is interesting to compare his views with those of Bruner and Piaget .
Scope/Application:
This is a general theory of cognitive development. Most of the original work was done in the context of language learning in children (Vygotsky, 1962), although later applications of the framework have been broader (see Wertsch, 1985).
Example:
Vygotsky (1978, p56) provides the example of pointing a finger. Initially, this behavior begins as a meaningless grasping motion; however, as people react to the gesture, it becomes a movement that has meaning. In particular, the pointing gesture represents an interpersonal connection between individuals.
Principles:
1. Cognitive development is limited to a certain range at any given age.
2. Full cognitive development requires social interaction.
Overview:
The social learning theory of Bandura emphasizes the importance of observing and modeling the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others. Bandura (1977) states: "Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if people had to rely solely on the effects of their own actions to inform them what to do. Fortunately, most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling: from observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action." (p22). Social learning theory explains human behavior in terms of continuous reciprocal interaction between cognitive, behavioral, an environmental influences. The component processes underlying observational learning are: (1) Attention, including modeled events (distinctiveness, affective valence, complexity, prevalence, functional value) and observer characteristics (sensory capacities, arousal level, perceptual set, past reinforcement), (2) Retention, including symbolic coding, cognitive organization, symbolic rehearsal, motor rehearsal), (3) Motor Reproduction, including physical capabilities, self-observation of reproduction, accuracy of feedback, and (4) Motivation, including external, vicarious and self reinforcement.
Because it encompasses attention, memory and motivation, social learning theory spans both cognitive and behavioral frameworks. Bandura's theory improves upon the strictly behavioral interpretation of modeling provided by Miller & Dollard (1941). Bandura’s work is related to the theories of Vygotsky and Lave which also emphasize the central role of social learning.
Scope/Application:
Social learning theory has been applied extensively to the understanding of aggression (Bandura, 1973) and psychological disorders, particularly in the context of behavior modification (Bandura, 1969). It is also the theoretical foundation for the technique of behavior modeling which is widely used in training programs. In recent years, Bandura has focused his work on the concept of self-efficacy in a variety of contexts (e.g., Bandura, 1997).
Example:
The most common (and pervasive) examples of social learning situations are television commercials. Commercials suggest that drinking a certain beverage or using a particular hair shampoo will make us popular and win the admiration of attractive people. Depending upon the component processes involved (such as attention or motivation), we may model the behavior shown in the commercial and buy the product being advertised.
Principles:
1. The highest level of observational learning is achieved by first organizing and rehearsing the modeled behavior symbolically and then enacting it overtly. Coding modeled behavior into words, labels or images results in better retention than simply observing.
2. Individuals are more likely to adopt a modeled behavior if it results in outcomes they value.
3. Individuals are more likely to adopt a modeled behavior if the model is similar to the observer and has admired status and the behavior has functional value.
Overview:
Ausubel's theory is concerned with how individuals learn large amounts of meaningful material from verbal/textual presentations in a school setting (in contrast to theories developed in the context of laboratory experiments). According to Ausubel, learning is based upon the kinds of superordinate, representational, and combinatorial processes that occur during the reception of information. A primary process in learning is subsumption in which new material is related to relevant ideas in the existing cognitive structure on a substantive, non-verbatim basis. Cognitive structures represent the residue of all learning experiences; forgetting occurs because certain details get integrated and lose their individual identity.
A major instructional mechanism proposed by Ausubel is the use of advance organizers:
"These organizers are introduced in advance of learning itself, and are also presented at a higher level of abstraction, generality, and inclusiveness; and since the substantive content of a given organizer or series of organizers is selected on the basis of its suitability for explaining, integrating, and interrelating the material they precede, this strategy simultaneously satisfies the substantive as well as the programming criteria for enhancing the organization strength of cognitive structure." (1963 , p. 81).
Ausubel emphasizes that advance organizers are different from overviews and summaries which simply emphasize key ideas and are presented at the same level of abstraction and generality as the rest of the material. Organizers act as a subsuming bridge between new learning material and existing related ideas.
Ausubel's theory has commonalities with Gestalt theories and those
that involve schema (e.g.,
Scope/Application:
Ausubel clearly indicates that his theory applies only to reception (expository) learning in school settings. He distinguishes reception learning from rote and discovery learning; the former because it doesn't involve subsumption (i.e., meaningful materials) and the latter because the learner must discover information through problem solving. A large number of studies have been conducted on the effects of advance organizers in learning (see Ausubel, 1968, 1978).
Example:
Ausubel (1963, p. 80) cites Boyd's textbook of pathology as an example of progressive differentiation because the book presents information according to general processes (e.g., inflammation, degeneration) rather than by describing organ systems in isolation. He also cites the Physical Science Study Committee curriculum which organizes material according to the major ideas of physics instead of piece-meal discussion of principle or phenomenon (p. 78).
Principles:
1. The most general ideas of a subject should be presented first and then progressively differentiated in terms of detail and specificity.
2. Instructional materials should attempt to integrate new material with previously presented information through comparisons and cross-referencing of new and old ideas.
Behaviorism
Definition
Behaviorism is a theory of animal and human learning that only focuses on
objectively observable behaviors and discounts mental activities. Behavior
theorists define learning as nothing more than the acquisition of new behavior.
Discussion
Experiments by behaviorists identify conditioning as a universal
learning process. There are two different types of conditioning, each yielding
a different behavioral pattern:
There have been many criticisms of behaviorism, including the following:
How Behaviorism Impacts Learning
This theory is relatively simple to understand because
it relies only on observable behavior and describes several universal laws of
behavior. Its positive and negative reinforcement techniques can be very
effective--both in animals, and in treatments for human disorders such as
autism and antisocial behavior. Behaviorism often is used by teachers, who
reward or punish student behaviors.
Constructivism
Definition
Constructivism is a philosophy of learning founded on the premise that, by
reflecting on our experiences, we construct our own understanding of the world
we live in. Each of us generates our own "rules" and "mental
models," which we use to make sense of our experiences. Learning,
therefore, is simply the process of adjusting our mental models to accommodate
new experiences.
Discussion
There are several guiding principles of constructivism:
1. Learning is a search for meaning. Therefore, learning must start with the issues around which students are actively trying to construct meaning.
2. Meaning requires understanding wholes as well as parts. And parts must be understood in the context of wholes. Therefore, the learning process focuses on primary concepts, not isolated facts.
3. In order to teach well, we must understand the mental models that students use to perceive the world and the assumptions they make to support those models.
4. The purpose of learning is for an individual to construct his or her own meaning, not just memorize the "right" answers and regurgitate someone else's meaning. Since education is inherently interdisciplinary, the only valuable way to measure learning is to make the assessment part of the learning process, ensuring it provides students with information on the quality of their learning.
How Constructivism Impacts Learning
Curriculum--Constructivism calls for the elimination of a standardized
curriculum. Instead, it promotes using curricula customized to the students'
prior knowledge. Also, it emphasizes hands-on problem solving.
Instruction--Under the theory of constructivism, educators focus on making connections between facts and fostering new understanding in students. Instructors tailor their teaching strategies to student responses and encourage students to analyze, interpret, and predict information. Teachers also rely heavily on open-ended questions and promote extensive dialogue among students.
Assessment--Constructivism calls for the elimination of grades and standardized testing. Instead, assessment becomes part of the learning process so that students play a larger role in judging their own progress.
Piaget
Definition
Swiss biologist and psychologist Jean Piaget (1896-1980) is renowned for
constructing a highly influential model of child development and learning.
Piaget's theory is based on the idea that the developing child builds cognitive
structures--in other words, mental "maps," schemes, or networked
concepts for understanding and responding to physical experiences within his or
her environment. Piaget further attested that a child's cognitive structure
increases in sophistication with development, moving from a few innate reflexes
such as crying and sucking to highly complex mental activities.
Discussion
Piaget's theory identifies four developmental stages and the processes by which
children progress through them. The four stages are:
Piaget outlined several principles for building cognitive structures. During all development stages, the child experiences his or her environment using whatever mental maps he or she has constructed so far. If the experience is a repeated one, it fits easily--or is assimilated--into the child's cognitive structure so that he or she maintains mental "equilibrium." If the experience is different or new, the child loses equilibrium, and alters his or her cognitive structure to accommodate the new conditions. This way, the child erects more and more adequate cognitive structures.
How Piaget's Theory Impacts Learning
Curriculum--Educators must plan a developmentally appropriate curriculum
that enhances their students' logical and conceptual growth.
Instruction--Teachers must emphasize the critical role that experiences--or interactions with the surrounding environment--play in student learning. For example, instructors have to take into account the role that fundamental concepts, such as the permanence of objects, play in establishing cognitive structures.
Learning Styles
Definition
This approach to learning emphasizes the fact that individuals perceive and
process information in very different ways. The learning styles theory implies
that how much individuals learn has more to do with whether the educational
experience is geared toward their particular style of learning than whether or
not they are "smart." In fact, educators should not ask, "Is
this student smart?" but rather "How is this student smart?"
Discussion
The concept of learning styles is rooted in the classification of psychological
types. The learning styles theory is based on research demonstrating that, as
the result of heredity, upbringing, and current environmental demands,
different individuals have a tendency to both perceive and process information
differently. The different ways of doing so are generally classified as:
1. Concrete and abstract perceivers--Concrete perceivers absorb information through direct experience, by doing, acting, sensing, and feeling. Abstract perceivers, however, take in information through analysis, observation, and thinking.
2. Active and reflective processors--Active processors make sense of an experience by immediately using the new information. Reflective processors make sense of an experience by reflecting on and thinking about it.
Traditional schooling tends to favor abstract perceiving and reflective processing. Other kinds of learning aren't rewarded and reflected in curriculum, instruction, and assessment nearly as much.
How the Learning Styles Theory Impacts Education
Curriculum--Educators must place emphasis on intuition, feeling,
sensing, and imagination, in addition to the traditional skills of analysis,
reason, and sequential problem solving.
Instruction--Teachers should design their instruction methods to connect with all four learning styles, using various combinations of experience, reflection, conceptualization, and experimentation. Instructors can introduce a wide variety of experiential elements into the classroom, such as sound, music, visuals, movement, experience, and even talking.
Assessment--Teachers should employ a variety of assessment techniques, focusing on the development of "whole brain" capacity and each of the different learning styles.
Multiple Intelligences
Definition
This theory of human intelligence, developed by psychologist Howard Gardner,
suggests there are at least seven ways that people have of perceiving and
understanding the world.
Discussion
Is somewhat autonomous from other human capacities
Has a core set of information-processing operations
Has a distinct history in the stages of development we each pass through
Has plausible roots in evolutionary history
While
1. Verbal-Linguistic--The ability to use words and language
2. Logical-Mathematical--The capacity for inductive and deductive thinking and reasoning, as well as the use of numbers and the recognition of abstract patterns
3. Visual-Spatial--The ability to visualize objects and spatial dimensions, and create internal images and pictures
4. Body-Kinesthetic--The wisdom of the body and the ability to control physical motion
5. Musical-Rhythmic--The ability to recognize tonal patterns and sounds, as well as a sensitivity to rhythms and beats
6. Interpersonal--The capacity for person-to-person communications and relationships
7. Intrapersonal--The spiritual, inner states of being, self-reflection, and awareness
How Multiple Intelligences Impact Learning
Curriculum--Traditional schooling heavily favors the verbal-linguistic
and logical-mathematical intelligences.
Instruction--
Assessment--This theory calls for assessment methods that take into account the diversity of intelligences, as well as self-assessment tools that help students understand their intelligences.
Observational Learning
Definition
Observational learning, also called social learning theory, occurs when an
observer's behavior changes after viewing the behavior of a model. An
observer's behavior can be affected by the positive or negative
consequences--called vicarious reinforcement or vicarious punishment-- of a
model's behavior.
Discussion
There are several guiding principles behind observational learning, or
social learning theory:
1. The observer will imitate the model's behavior if the model possesses characteristics-- things such as talent, intelligence, power, good looks, or popularity--that the observer finds attractive or desirable.
2. The observer will react to the way the model is treated and mimic the model's behavior. When the model's behavior is rewarded, the observer is more likely to reproduce the rewarded behavior. When the model is punished, an example of vicarious punishment, the observer is less likely to reproduce the same behavior.
3. A distinction exists between an observer's "acquiring" a behavior and "performing" a behavior. Through observation, the observer can acquire the behavior without performing it. The observer may then later, in situations where there is an incentive to do so, display the behavior.
4. Learning by observation involves four separate processes: attention, retention, production and motivation.
o Attention: Observers cannot learn unless they pay attention to what's happening around them. This process is influenced by characteristics of the model, such as how much one likes or identifies with the model, and by characteristics of the observer, such as the observer's expectations or level of emotional arousal.
o Retention: Observers must not only recognize the observed behavior but also remember it at some later time. This process depends on the observer's ability to code or structure the information in an easily remembered form or to mentally or physically rehearse the model's actions.
o Production: Observers must be physically and/intellectually capable of producing the act. In many cases the observer possesses the necessary responses. But sometimes, reproducing the model's actions may involve skills the observer has not yet acquired. It is one thing to carefully watch a circus juggler, but it is quite another to go home and repeat those acts.
o Motivation: In general, observers will perform the act only if they have some motivation or reason to do so. The presence of reinforcement or punishment, either to the model or directly to the observer, becomes most important in this process.
5. Attention and retention account for acquisition or learning of a model's behavior; production and motivation control the performance.
6. Human development reflects the complex interaction of the person, the person's behavior, and the environment. The relationship between these elements is called reciprocal determinism. A person's cognitive abilities, physical characteristics, personality, beliefs, attitudes, and so on influence both his or her behavior and environment. These influences are reciprocal, however. A person's behavior can affect his feelings about himself and his attitudes and beliefs about others. Likewise, much of what a person knows comes from environmental resources such as television, parents, and books. Environment also affects behavior: what a person observes can powerfully influence what he does. But a person's behavior also contributes to his environment.
How Observational Learning Impacts Learning:
Curriculum-- Students must get a chance to observe and model the behavior that leads to a positive reinforcement.
Instruction-- Educators must encourage collaborative learning, since much of learning happens within important social and environmental contexts.
Assessment--A learned behavior often cannot be performed unless there is the right environment for it. Educators must provide the incentive and the supportive environment for the behavior to happen. Otherwise, assessment may not be accurate.
Vygotsky and Social Cognition
Definition
The social cognition learning model asserts that culture is the prime determinant
of individual development. Humans are the only species to have created culture,
and every human child develops in the context of a culture. Therefore, a
child's learning development is affected in ways large and small by the
culture--including the culture of family environment--in which he or she is
enmeshed.
Discussion
1. Culture makes two sorts of contributions to a child's intellectual development. First, through culture children acquire much of the content of their thinking, that is, their knowledge. Second, the surrounding culture provides a child with the processes or means of their thinking, what Vygotskians call the tools of intellectual adaptation. In short, according to the social cognition learning model, culture teaches children both what to think and how to think.
2. Cognitive development results from a dialectical process whereby a child learns through problem-solving experiences shared with someone else, usually a parent or teacher but sometimes a sibling or peer.
3. Initially, the person interacting with child assumes most of the responsibility for guiding the problem solving, but gradually this responsibility transfers to the child.
4. Language is a primary form of interaction through which adults transmit to the child the rich body of knowledge that exists in the culture.
5. As learning progresses, the child's own language comes to serve as her primary tool of intellectual adaptation. Eventually, children can use internal language to direct their own behavior.
6. Internalization refers to the process of learning--and thereby internalizing--a rich body of knowledge and tools of thought that first exist outside the child. This happens primarily through language.
7. A difference exists between what child can do on her own and what the child can do with help. Vygotskians call this difference the zone of proximal development.
8. Since much of what a child learns comes form the culture around her and much of the child's problem solving is mediated through an adult's help, it is wrong to focus on a child in isolation. Such focus does not reveal the processes by which children acquire new skills.
9. Interactions with surrounding culture and social agents, such as parents and more competent peers, contribute significantly to a child's intellectual development.
How Vygotsky Impacts Learning:
Curriculum--Since children learn much through interaction, curricula
should be designed to emphasize interaction between learners and learning
tasks.
Instruction--With appropriate adult help, children can often perform tasks that they are incapable of completing on their own. With this in mind, scaffolding--where the adult continually adjusts the level of his or her help in response to the child's level of performance--is an effective form of teaching. Scaffolding not only produces immediate results, but also instills the skills necessary for independent problem solving in the future.
Assessment--Assessment methods must take into account the zone of proximal development. What children can do on their own is their level of actual development and what they can do with help is their level of potential development. Two children might have the same level of actual development, but given the appropriate help from an adult, one might be able to solve many more problems than the other. Assessment methods must target both the level of actual development and the level of potential development.
The focus on process obviously takes us into the realm of learning theories - ideas about how or why change occurs. On these pages we focus on four different orientations (the first three taken from Merriam and Caffarella 1991).
· the behaviourist orientation to learning
· the cognitive orientation to learning
· the humanistic orientation to learning
· the social/situational orientation to learning
As with any categorization of this sort the divisions are a bit arbitrary: there could be further additions and sub-divisions to the scheme, and there a various ways in which the orientations overlap and draw upon each other.
The four orientations can be summed up in the following figure:
|
Aspect |
||||
|
Learning
theorists |
Thorndike,
Pavlov, Watson, Guthrie, |
Maslow, Rogers |
Bandura, Lave and
Wenger, Salomon |
|
|
View
of the learning process |
Change in
behaviour |
Internal mental process (including insight, information processing,
memory, perception |
A
personal act to fulfil potential. |
Interaction /observation in social contexts. Movement from
the periphery to the centre of a community of practice |
|
Locus
of learning |
Stimuli
in external environment |
Internal
cognitive structuring |
Affective
and cognitive needs |
Learning is in relationship between people and
environment. |
|
Purpose
in education |
Produce behavioural change in
desired direction |
Develop
capacity and skills to learn better |
Become
self-actualized, autonomous |
Full participation in communities of practice and
utilization of resources |
|
Educator's
role |
Arranges environment to elicit desired response |
Structures
content of learning activity |
Facilitates
development of the whole person |
Works to establish communities of practice in which
conversation and participation can occur. |
|
Manifestations
in adult learning |
Behavioural objectives
Competency -based
education Skill development and training |
Cognitive
development Intelligence, learning
and memory as function of age Learning how to learn |
Andragogy
Self-directed learning |
Socialization Social participation Associationalism Conversation
|
As can seen from the above schematic presentation and the discussion on the
linked pages, these approaches involve contrasting ideas as to the purpose and
process of learning and education - and the role that educators may take. It is
also important to recognize that the theories may apply to different sectors of
the acquision-formalized learning continuum outlined
above. For example, the work of Lave and Wenger
is broadly a form of acquisition learning that can involve some more formal
interludes.
For this listing I have tried to bring together a selection of books that look to the main themes arising in the literature around learning (and education). For those familiar with Tennant (1997) (which is a set text on a course I teach!), the writers can be grouped as follows:
· humanistic orientations - here I chosen Maslow and Rogers.
· psychoanalytical approaches - Salzberger-Wittenberg et al provide a useful introduction.
· the cognitive orientation - with Piaget, Gagné and Bruner
· learning styles - Witkin on field dependence and independence; and Kolb on experiential learning.
· behaviourism - represented here by Skinner.
· building learning communities - Dewey on group investigation; Lave and Wenger on situated learning.
· critical awareness - Mezirow on the transformative dimensions of learning; Freire on 'conscientization'.
Summary of Five Learning Theories
Major Theorists:
Key Words:
Learning, associations, contiguity, repetition, mental concentration, instinct, habituation, imprinting, paradigm, naturalistic observation, analogy, empirical, parsimony, refutability, epistemology.
Summary:
Learning and the understanding of the learning process helps you to understand why people behave the way they do. Learning affects people throughout their lives; in school; at home or on the job. Understanding one's personal learning style or method can help a person organise their own learning activities.
Learning theories are developed and then must be tested and researched. Empirical research, for most psychologists and theorists, " proves" the theory. Learning theories can be separated from developmental or social (personalities) theories. Evaluation of a learning theory should be empirical rather than by firmly stated opinions.
Major Theorists:
Key words:
Operant conditioning, respondent conditioning, stimulus-response, reinforcement, rote learning, memorization, incremental learning, multiple response, identical elements theory of transfer, trial-and-error-learning, reinforceement schedule, programmed learning, shaping, teaching machine, conditions of learning, principles of instruction.
Summary:
The behaviorists believes that environment shapes behaviour. They are concerned with the changes in a students behaviour that occur as aresult of learning. Behaviourist theory emerges in the form of operant conditioning, using reinforcement. This practise is reflected is reflected in the classrooom by the use of gold stars, time at the computer, etc. B.F. Skinner is often called the father of behaviorism. He identified two types of conditioning: respondent and operant.
There ae primary reinforcers (satisfy primary needs) and secondary reinforces (provide satisfaction). Reinforcers can be either positive or negative. It is believed that the presence of reinforcement can increase a behaviour and that the absence of reinforcement can weaken it.
In education, the process is as follows:
Major Theorists:
Key Words:
meaningful learning, meaningful verbal learning, information-processing models, short-term-memory, long-term-memory, cognitive structure, cognitive maps, mental maps, assimilation, rehearsal, elaboration, organisation, comprehension monitoring, affective domain, insightful learning, isomorphism, phenomenology, productive thinking, accomodation, epistomology, intelligence, schema, latent learning.
Summary:
Cognitive theorists are concerned with the changes in a student's understanding that result from learning. They believe that learning must be meaningful. Cognitive learning is based on schemata or mental structures by which students organise their perceived environment. Schematic structures of cognitive development change by the process of assimilation and accomodation.
David Ausubel's "assimilation theory of learning" involves several components of learning, and promotes the idea that people learn better if they can find meaning in the learning. Rote learning or memorisation is used for information that a learner is requitred to know but does not find meaningful. However if a learner is presented with new information that processes some external or internal characteristics which enable the learner to associate it with previous learning, the learner may learn the new information becaus eit is meaningful to him/her.
An important component of cognitive theory is the relationship between short- term and long-term memory. Organisation of knowledge in long-term memory is called cognitive structure. several cognitive strategies useful in making learning meaningful and useful for transfer of learning have been identified: rehearsal strategies, elaboration strategies, organisation strategies, comprehension monitoring strategies and effective strategies.
Information-processing models of teaching and learning have been placed under the umbrella of cognitive learning theory. It is interesting to note that theorists associated with information-processing have been classified under both behaviouristic and cognitive learning theories. This includes R.M Gagne, E.C. Tolman and A. Bandura.
Major Theorists:
Key words:
Cognitive field, positive relativism, neutral-interactive, insights, autotelic principle, intrinsic motivation, problem-solving, self-regulating learner, reflective, responsive environment.
Summary:
Constructivists believe that learning is constructed by a student through two processes: the resolution of conflict and reflection about theory. Discovery learning is preferred over expository teaching. The learner determines his or her own best way of learning, and that learning should not be externally dtermined and controlled. Discovery learning increases motivation to learn, and also produces better long-term memory.
Complex behaviours are selected and orchestrated by the learner in the context of his/her own goals or purposes. The learner must be active, because only he/she can select and interpret information from the environment. Constructivism does not necessarily mean hands-on -learning. What the learner already knows dtermines what he/she will learn. Knowledge is a personally meaningful construction.
Constructivists promote a students's free exploration within a given framework or structure. Modern technological advances such as interactive laser disks, multimedia technologies, on-line facilities and the Worlds Wide Web provide students with access to databases and sear engines which support discovery learning.
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